Government Structure & Levels

The national government of the United States, established by the Constitution and responsible for matters that affect the country as a whole. The federal government is divided into three branches: the legislative branch, which makes laws; the executive branch, which enforces them; and the judicial branch, which interprets them. Areas under federal authority include national defense, foreign policy, immigration, and interstate commerce, among others.

One of the fifty individual governments that, alongside the federal government, make up the U.S. system of federalism. Each state has its own constitution, legislature, executive branch, and court system. States hold significant authority over areas including education, elections, criminal law, transportation, and public health. The balance of power between state and federal governments has been a defining feature of American politics since the founding.

The layer of government closest to where people live, including cities, counties, towns, townships, and special districts. Local governments handle many of the services that most directly affect daily life, including public schools, roads, water, zoning, local law enforcement, and public parks. Most local officials are elected, though many local positions receive far less voter attention than state and federal races.

The governing bodies of federally recognized Native American tribes, which hold a unique status under U.S. law as sovereign nations. Tribal governments have the authority to govern their own members and territories, maintain their own laws and courts, and operate programs and services for their communities. The relationship between tribal governments and the federal government is defined by treaties, federal statutes, and a complex body of federal Indian law.

The branch of government responsible for carrying out and enforcing the laws passed by the legislature. At the federal level, the executive branch is led by the president and includes the vice president, the Cabinet, and a wide range of federal agencies and departments. At the state level, the governor leads the executive branch. The executive branch also plays a major role in setting policy priorities and conducting foreign affairs.

The branch of government responsible for making laws. At the federal level, the legislative branch is the U.S. Congress, which consists of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Every state also has its own legislative branch, most of which are bicameral, meaning they have two chambers as well. The legislative branch holds the power of the purse, meaning it controls government spending, and serves as a check on the executive branch.

The branch of government responsible for interpreting laws and the Constitution. At the federal level, the judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court and includes a network of appellate and district courts. Federal judges are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and they serve lifetime appointments. The judicial branch's power of judicial review allows it to strike down laws that violate the Constitution.

A legislature made up of two separate chambers or houses. The U.S. Congress is bicameral, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Most state legislatures are also bicameral, with a senate and a house or assembly. The two-chamber structure was designed to balance the interests of large and small states and to create an additional check within the legislative process itself.

The upper chamber of the U.S. Congress, made up of 100 senators, two from each state regardless of population. Senators serve six-year terms, with roughly one-third of the Senate up for election every two years. The Senate has exclusive powers that the House does not share, including confirming presidential nominees for federal judgeships and Cabinet positions and ratifying treaties with foreign nations.

The lower chamber of the U.S. Congress, made up of 435 voting members whose seats are apportioned among the states based on population. Representatives serve two-year terms, meaning the entire House is up for election every two years. The House has the exclusive power to originate revenue bills and to bring articles of impeachment against federal officials.

The lawmaking body of a state government, responsible for passing state laws, setting the state budget, and overseeing the executive branch. Most state legislatures are bicameral, though Nebraska has a unicameral, or single-chamber, legislature. State legislatures also play a central role in drawing congressional and state legislative district maps following each decennial census.

The name used in some states for the lower chamber of the state legislature, equivalent to the state house of representatives in other states. Members of a state assembly typically serve two-year terms and represent smaller districts than state senators. The specific powers and structure of a state assembly vary by state.

The elected legislative body of a city or municipality, responsible for passing local ordinances, setting the local budget, and establishing city policy. City council members represent specific districts or, in some cities, the city as a whole through at-large seats. The city council is typically the most accessible level of elected government for residents, and its meetings are open to the public.

The government of a county, which is a subdivision of a state and typically the primary unit of local government in rural areas. County governments provide a wide range of services including law enforcement through the sheriff's office, courts, property records, elections administration, public health, and social services. The structure of county government varies significantly from state to state.

An elected member of a county's governing board, often called the board of commissioners or board of supervisors. County commissioners are responsible for setting county policy, approving the county budget, and overseeing county services and departments. In many rural areas, the county commission is the most significant local governing body residents interact with.

The elected governing body of a local school district, responsible for setting educational policy, approving the district budget, hiring the superintendent, and overseeing the operation of public schools within the district. School board elections are among the most locally impactful elections that most voters never participate in, despite the board's significant influence over curriculum, staffing, and school funding.

A unit of local government created to provide a specific service within a defined geographic area, separate from city or county government. Special districts exist for purposes including water and sewer service, fire protection, hospitals, transit, mosquito control, and many others. Most special districts are governed by elected boards, though many voters are unaware that these positions exist or that they have the right to vote in those elections.

A city, town, village, or borough that is incorporated under state law and has its own local government. Municipalities have the authority to pass local ordinances, levy taxes, provide services, and manage local affairs within the limits set by state law. The term is often used interchangeably with "city" in everyday conversation, though municipalities can range from small towns to large urban centers.

The authority granted by a state to a local government to govern itself and manage its own affairs without requiring state approval for every decision. Home rule gives cities and counties greater flexibility to set their own policies on issues like zoning, taxation, and local services. Not all states grant home rule, and the extent of home rule authority varies significantly from state to state.

The principle that individual states retain certain powers and authorities that the federal government cannot override. Rooted in the 10th Amendment, which reserves to the states all powers not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution, the concept of states' rights has been invoked throughout American history in debates ranging from slavery and segregation to education policy and healthcare. It remains a central point of tension in ongoing debates about the proper balance of power between the federal government and the states.

A legal doctrine under which a higher level of government, such as the state, overrides or prevents a lower level of government, such as a city or county, from passing its own laws on a particular subject. When a state preempts local action, local governments lose the ability to regulate that issue even if local residents want stronger or different rules. Preemption has become increasingly common in areas including minimum wage, gun regulations, environmental protections, and tenant rights.

The interactions, agreements, and sometimes conflicts between different levels of government: federal, state, local, and tribal. Because power in the United States is divided across many governing bodies, these relationships shape how laws are implemented, how funding flows, and how services reach residents. Understanding intergovernmental relations is essential to understanding why some policies look different from state to state or city to city even when they originate from federal law.